Bayt al-Hikmah was a remarkable assemblage of scholar-translators who undertook a Herculean task: to translate into Arabic all of what had survived of the philosophical and scientific tradition of the ancient world and incorporate it into the conceptual framework of Islam. Assembling an army of three thousand men, they met the Muslims at Uhud, a ridge outside Medina. The Black Death (1347 - 1351 CE) was the first and greatest of the many plague outbreaks of the second plague pandemic in the Middle East (1347 CE to 1877 CE). After the Hijrah, Muhammad's exceptional qualities so impressed the Medinans that the rival tribes and their allies temporarily closed ranks as, on March 15, 624, Muhammad and his supporters moved against the pagans of Mecca. Although the Suez Canal, for example, has been of immense value to Egypt, the profits for nearly a century went to European shareholders in the company that managed the canal. The system of numeration employed throughout the greater part of the world today was probably developed in India, but because it was the Arabs who transmitted this system to the West the numerals it uses have come to be called Arabic. Islam is a monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century by the prophet Muhammad. Resistance to European penetration took several forms. On January 2, 1492 - the year they sent Columbus to America - Ferdinand and Isabella hoisted the banner of Christian Spain above the Alhambra and Boabdil, the last Muslim king, rode weeping into exile with the bitter envoi from his aged mother, "Weep like a woman for the city you would not defend like a man!". Building the railway was undertaken in 1900 by Sultan Abdul-Hamid, as a pan-Islamic project. Photo: Miniature from the Shah-Nameh (Book of Kings), illustrating the epic of Persian poet Firdausi. Most pilgrims also attempt to kiss, touch, or salute the Hajar al-Aswad, the Black Stone of the Ka'bah, a fragment of polished stone revered as a sign sent by God and a remnant of the original structure built by Abraham and Ishmael. Islam had a great impact on the culture of North Africa. It was in Ottoman Turkey, however, that calligraphy attained the highest development once the early creative flowering had faded elsewhere in the Middle East. As the Muslims were not completely defeated, the Meccans, with an army of ten thousand, attacked Medina again two years later but with quite different results. After the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, the young Muslim federation came under strain. Islamic calligraphers have experimented endlessly and have been extremely imaginative. Fatimid merchants traded with Afghanistan and China and tried to divert some of Baghdad's Arabian Gulf shipping to the Red Sea. This new way of writing numbers was economical but not flawless. There were, however, some positive accomplishments in this period, such as the Hijaz Railway. I was born in Iran but we moved to Europe when I was a baby or toddler and I never had anything to do with religion. In Europe, meanwhile, the Arabs had passed into Spain, defeated the Visigoths, and by 713 had reached Narbonne in France. This so weakened them that when the various Christian kingdoms began to pose a serious threat, the Muslim rulers in Spain had to ask the Almoravids, a North African Berber dynasty, to come to their aid. But sharp ideological and ethnic differences within the region create conflict today. By the end of the 13th century it had begun to pull even, and by the end of the 15th century it had surpassed both. After the fall of Constantinople, and during the sixteenth century, the Ottoman system evolved the centralized administrative framework by which the sultans maintained effective control over the extraordinarily diverse peoples in the vast empire. Sometime later Muhammad married Khadijah, by whom he had two sons - who did not survive - and four daughters. Thereunto we give them the pact of Allah and the protection of His Prophet, the caliphs and the believers. Three times Muhammad pleaded his inability to do so, but each time the command was repeated. Here, you will find quick shortcuts to major topics & hubs under IslamiCity. At issue, essentially, was the legitimacy of 'Ali's caliphate. The introduction of paper, replacing parchment and papyrus, was a pivotal advance which had effects on education and scholarship as far reaching as the invention of printing in the fifteenth century. Photo: The diwani script (top) and the so called "royal" diwani (below) were developed by Ottoman calligraphers for use on state documents. It was not until the Umayyad Dynasty from 661 to 750that Islamic and Arabic culture began to truly spread. Photo: Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil. Considered dispassionately, the venture was impossible. With great difficulty, the task was carried out and the first complete manuscript compiled from "bits of parchment, thin white stones - ostracae - leafless palm branches, and the memories of men." But from the middle of the sixteenth century on the empire began to decline. In the eighth century, however, they had a more convenient source: the works of Greek scientists stored in libraries in Constantinople and other centers of the Byzantine empire. Master of the Day of Judgment; The Medieval Islamic Empire was a collection of regions in which Islam was practised. To practice their faith, Muslims must accept five primary obligations which Islam imposes. So renowned were Ottoman calligraphers, in fact, that a popular saying was that "The Quran was revealed in Mecca, recited in Egypt, and written in Istanbul." Photo: Facing al-Gharbiyah, the western minaret, a muezzin at the Umayyad Mosque calls believers to prayer. Most important of all, he introduced Arabic as the language of administration, replacing Greek and Pahlavi. By the twelfth century kufic was obsolete as a working script except for special uses and in northwest Africa, where it developed into the maghribi style of writing still used in the area today. Remember, although tribes or regions may share the same pantheon of gods, they tend . The early state began in Medina and gradually gained Mecca, Hunayn, Tabouk, and a large majority of the populated regions of the Arabian Peninsula. But the Arab military adventures do not seem to have been intended as a religious war of conversion. Never, he wrote, was the annihilation of a people more complete. The surahs revealed at Mecca - at the beginning of Muhammad's mission - tend to be short and to stress, in highly moving language, the eternal themes of the unity of God, the necessity of faith, the punishment of those who stray from the right path, and the Last Judgment, when all man's actions and beliefs will be judged. It is also customary for pilgrims to return to Mina between the eleventh and thirteenth days and cast their remaining pebbles at the three pillars there and then, in Mecca, make a farewell circling of the Ka'bah. His innovations left all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the growing empire. Ethnic Arabs comprise only about 15-18 percent of the world's 1.2 billion Muslims. This essay looks at the spread of Islam into Southeast Asia and how religious belief and expression fit with extant and modern polictical and economic infrastructures. The scholars at the House of Wisdom, unlike their modern counterparts, did not "specialize." Only one man of importance escaped the disaster - 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiyah al-Dakhil, a young prince who with a loyal servant fled to Spain and in 756 set up an Umayyad Dynasty there. Photo: Cursive script on a section of gold-embroidered kiswah, the black cloth covering of the Ka'bah, which is renewed each year at the time of the pilgrimage. This material became the basis for what is called the sunnah, or "practice" of the Prophet - the deeds, utterances, and taqrir (unspoken approval) of Muhammad. The Holy Quran is the most sacred book of Allah revealed on Prophet Muhammad (SAW), for the upliftment guidance and enriched messages to the humanity. Because Islam became the predominant religion of . Ramadan begins with the sighting of the new moon, after which abstention from eating and drinking, as well as physical continence, is obligatory every day between dawn and sunset. Civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish. When, for example, al-Mamun marched from Khorasan to Baghdad, he left a trusted general named Tahir ibn al-Husayn in charge of the eastern province. Cordoba also had some 900 public baths, Europe's first street lights and, five miles outside the city, the caliphal residence, Madinat al-Zahra. Much of the emigration, however, came later. Abu Bakr took swift military action against the communities that wanted to break away. Even more astonishingly, the Muslim state administered the conquered territories with a tolerance almost unheard of in that age. In their sweep through the Islamic world the Mongols killed or deported numerous scholars and scientists and destroyed libraries with their irreplaceable works. The religion of Islam began in the Middle East during the early 600s CE. But they were not always at the forefront and from the time of Mu'awiyah the caliph's role as "Defender of the Faith" increasingly required him to devote attention to the purely secular concerns which dominate so much of every nation's history. Western and Western stimulated efforts to modernize parts of the Middle East, moreover, often led Middle Eastern rulers to incur debts which led to European financial control and then to European political domination. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. The Ottoman Turks have conquered and maintain effective control over diverse peoples in a vast empire stretching from Persia almost to the gates of Vienna and along the north coast of Africa to Algiers. In 632, just three years later, he was suddenly taken ill and on June 8 of that year, with his third wife 'Aishah in attendance, the Messenger of God "died with the heat of noon.". Photo: Water courses and fountains make an oasis of the Alhambra palace built at Granada in the fourteenth century Here incredibly light and elegant elements of Islamic decoration find their highest realization. The first verses were revealed to him in or about 610, and the last revelation dates from the last year of his life, 632. When it was founded it had 25 doctors, including oculists, surgeons, and bonesetters. The Arabs gave to a large part of the world not only a religion - Islam - but also a language and an alphabet. Throughout its history, Islam has been in constant . Leading to hate and conflicts. Islam in Middle Eastern Societies The Muslim populations of the Middle East make up only 44% of the total world Muslim population of the world (see "Muslim-Majority Countries of the Middle East" chart).. A basis for understanding the role of Islam in Middle Eastern societies, is the distinction between its doctrine and the cultural practices which are done in the name of Islam or which . The Americans started to get sucked into the complex world of Middle East politics, and with time, that interest grew and evolved: From self-determination of the Arabs to the drilling of the Arab . His death, nevertheless, had little effect on the dynamic society he had created in Arabia, and no effect at all on his central mission: to transmit the Quran to the world. One of the great centers of learning was Baghdad, where Arab, Greek, Persian, Jewish, and other scholars pooled their cultural heritages and where in 771 an Indian scholar appeared, bringing with him a treatise on astronomy using the Indian numerical system. The Mamluks had been recruited by the Ayyubids and then, like the Turkish mercenaries of the 'Abbasid caliphs, had usurped power from their enfeebled masters. The belief in the unity of God was paramount in Islam; from this all else followed. The standing is not the end of the hajj, but is the culmination of a Muslim's devotional life. The Middle East is a geographical region that has been of great importance in history since ancient times. Arabic calligraphy therefore came to be used not only in producing copies of the Quran (its first and for many centuries its most important use), but also for all kinds of other artistic purposes as well on porcelain and metalware, for carpets and other textiles, on coins, and as architectural ornament (primarily on mosques and tombs but also, especially in later years, on other buildings as well). The intensified spreading of Islam due to the arrival of Aabs and Somalis, and intermarriages with the local people resulted into the Swahili people and Swahili culture. But in historical terms, only the Fatimids rivaled the preceding dynasties. In the cities, Arab intellectuals debated whether modernization or a return to their roots would be the more effective path to the removal of foreign dominance and, consequently, to independence. Photo: Persian miniature depicts students with a teacher of astronomy - one of the sciences to which scholars of the Golden Age made great contributions. As a result, Granada fell ten years later. Only Granada survived. A year later the Meccans struck back. Read more. 'Umar adopted this attitude in administrative matters as well. Umar found himself the ruler of a large unified state, with an organised army, and he used this as a tool to spread Islam further in the Middle East. The most stable of the successor dynasties founded in the ninth and tenth centuries was that of the Fatimids, a branch of Shi'is. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. This is a great article i ever seen Ma.Shaa.Allah. Later a director of the House of Wisdom, Hunayn also wrote at least twenty-nine original treatises of his own on medical topics, and a collection of ten essays on ophthalmology which covered, in systematic fashion, the anatomy and physiology of the eye and the treatment of various diseases which afflict vision. the pilgrims pour out of Mecca to Mina, where, as the Prophet did, they meditate overnight. The foundation of this legacy was the astonishing achievements of Muslim scholars, scientists, craftsmen, and traders during the two hundred years or so that are called the Golden Age. A prophet arises from the depths of a desert world to humiliate an empire and launch a holy war - a jihad. watch The Abridged Chronological History of Islam http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byq9akpc3Tg, 1995 - 2023 IslamiCity. Eventually the Mongols made an empire for themselves which is known as the . Islam did much more than geographically define Europe, however. By the tenth century, Cordoba could boast of a population of some 500,000, compared to about 38,000 in Paris. Because of the increasingly disruptive part played by the Janissaries, the empire, in a series of eighteenth-century wars, slowly lost territory. This led to such memorable works as Sirat Rasul Allah, the "Life of the Messenger of God," by Ibn Ishaq, later revised by Ibn Hisham; one of the earliest Arabic historical works, it was a key source of information about the Prophet's life and also a model for other important works of history such as al-Tabari's Annals of the Apostles and the Kings and his massive commentary on the Quran. Among his many contributions to optics was the first correct explanation . Does one religion have the monopoly on truth? Short-Term Effects. Then, in his forties he began to retire to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira outside of Mecca, where the first of the great events of Islam took place. Non-Muslims are often struck by the range of styles found in the Quran. across parts of the Middle East and Central Asia and lasted until 1194 . Muslims believe that theirs is the only true faith. Muslim traders, consequently, established trading posts as far away as India, the Philippines, Malaya, the East Indies, and China. But the full and final revelation came through Muhammad, the last of all prophets, and was embodied in the Quran, which completes and supersedes all previous revelations. I never saw such a great article like this. For a time the Fatimids aspired to be rulers of the whole Islamic world, and their achievements were impressive. In the countries that use the Arabic alphabet, on the other hand, calligraphy has continued to be used not only on important documents but for a variety of other artistic purposes as well. The Western world had for centuries been gradually penetrating most of the areas that had once been part of the Muslim empire, and in the latter part of the nineteenth century, in the vacuum left by the long decay and decline of the Ottoman Empire, European powers came to dominate the Middle East. They were repulsed, but by 1444 they had advanced into Greece and Albania, leaving Constantinople isolated though unconquered. This was one of the most significant events in the history of ideas. The conflict over Palestine actually goes back to 1896, when Theodor Herzl published a pamphlet called Der Judenstaat ("The Jewish State"), in which he advocated British-backed Jewish colonization in Argentina or Palestine - with the hope of eventually creating a sovereign Jewish state. Another distinctive Turkish contribution is the tughra, an elaborate and highly stylized rendering of the names of the Ottoman sultan, originally used to authenticate imperial decrees. But, bit by bit, they had to retreat, first from northern Spain, then from central Spain. Science section features not just Science but also Nature and Technology. Its restoration, begun in the early years of this century, is still under way. This process got under way as the office of the Grand Vizier gradually assumed more power and indifferent sultans began to neglect administration. Abu Bakr was known as the first caliph (from khalifa, the Arabic for successor). Called the Five Pillars of Islam, they are: the profession of faith (shahadah), devotional worship or prayer (salah), the religious tax (zakah), fasting (sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). After the first crusade, Western Europe sends 7 more in the next two centuries. The 1967 war triggered underground warfare by Palestinian militants, whose attacks were primarily aimed at Israel, but also included strikes in Europe and hijackings on international air routes. Called Banu Musa - "the sons of Musa" - these three men, Muhammad, Ahmad, and al-Hasan, devoted their lives and fortunes to the quest for knowledge. It is useful to realize that the power of Islam was separate from much and more permanent than that of the armies with which it rode. "Both their identities were challenged: their American identity and their Muslim identity," said Asani, who teaches Indo-Muslim and Islamic Religion and Cultures . Although the Arab Spring was marked by the rise of Political Islam movements, it also opened the door to discussions on topics that had long been They also improved trade and agriculture, patronized the arts, made valuable contributions to science, and established Cordoba as the most sophisticated city in Europe. Reigning with wisdom and justice, they treated Christians and Jews with tolerance, with the result that many embraced Islam. As Abu Bakr put it: "Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead, but whoever worshipped God, let him know that God lives and dies not.". This policy was to prove successful everywhere. To cement social bonds further, Islam has instituted zakat al-fitr, an obligatory levy in the form of provisions or money for the poor, so that they can share in the joy of 'Id al-Fitr. In addition to their military abilities the Turks seem to have been endowed with a special talent for organization. More importantly, traditional values are still deeply cherished and promoted. The "othering" of Muslims since 9/11 has had a long-term impact on the lives of Muslim Americans and their sense of belonging and inclusion in the fabric of American society. Geographical unity, however, was but one factor. Herbert's hero, Paul Atreides, is a man whose sense of supernatural mission is shadowed . Again, however, the effects were temporary and the empire continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention. These methods carefully preserved the elaborate science of reciting the Quran - with all its intonations and its cadence and punctuation. After sunset the pilgrims move to a place called Muzdalifah, where they gather stones for the "throwing of the pebbles" or "stoning of the pillars," and then pray and sleep. At a later period the Janissaries became so powerful that they made and unmade sultans at their will, and membership in the corps was a sure road to advancement. Because of administrative paralysis, local governors became increasingly independent and, eventually, revolts broke out. Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . The Merciful, the Compassionate; When, for example, al-Mansur died in 775 after a reign of twenty years, his son, al-Mahdi, inherited a full treasury and an empire that was more devoted to trade than war. If the origin of this new method was Indian, it is not at all certain that the original shapes of the Arabic numerals also were Indian. if ( blp_cancelWowEffect || blp_isSafari ) { // blp_isSafari vars comes from the global js variable defined at blp-js-library.js In the thirteenth century still another threat to the Muslim world appeared in the land beyond the Oxus: the Mongols. In Iran, for example, there came into use a particularly graceful and delicate script called ta'liq, in which the horizontal strokes of the letters are elongated and which is often written at an angle across the page. Many of the advances in science, literature, and trade which took place during the Golden Age of the 'Abbasids and which would provide the impetus for the European Renaissance reached their flowering during the caliphate of al-Mamun, son of Harun al-Rashid and perhaps the greatest of all the 'Abbasids. Instead of presenting a straight historical narrative, as do the Gospels and the historical books of the Old Testament, the Quran treats, in allusive style, spiritual and practical as well as historical matters. This group is known as ahl alsunnah wa-l-jama'ah, "the people of custom and community," or Sunnis, who consider the caliph to be Muhammad's successor only in his capacity as ruler of the community. This rift widened almost as soon as 'Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was chosen to be the fourth caliph. A year after Yarmuk, 'Umar, in the military camp of al-Jabiyah on the Golan Heights, received word that the Byzantines were ready to surrender Jerusalem and rode there to accept the surrender in person. Judaism dates from about 1200 B.C. Because the Quran rejected polytheism and emphasized man's moral responsibility, in powerful images, it presented a grave challenge to the worldly Meccans. He was also a man devoted to common sense, as the titles of two of his works suggest. The immediate net result of the treaty, in fact, was a general increase in tension in the Middle East which manifested itself in an apparent increase in Israeli intransigence in the occupied territories and the isolation of Egypt from the rest of the Arab world, including those countries on which it has been most heavily dependent for economic and political backing and which were opposed to the separate treaty because it failed to achieve a permanent and comprehensive peace. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the last Umayyad caliph, was defeated and the Syrians, still loyal to the Umayyads, were put to rout. Thereafter Medina was entirely in the hands of the Muslims. As the Prophet said, "The best of prayers is the prayer of the Day of 'Arafat.". There was also a vast literature on the correct deportment of princes, as well as anthologies of witty sayings and anecdotes with which to enliven one's epistolary style. The Golden Age also, little by little, transformed the diet of medieval Europe by introducing such plants as plums, artichokes, apricots, cauliflower, celery, fennel, squash, pumpkins, and eggplant, as well as rice, sorghum, new strains of wheat, the date palm, and sugarcane. In Mecca the plotters arrived at Muhammad's home to find that his cousin, 'Ali, had taken his place in bed. The Mongols were raiders, clan warriors, and rulers of a transcontinental empire in the thirteen century. With the advent of the Umayyads, how ever, secular concerns and the problems inherent in the administration of what, by then, was a large empire began to dominate the attention of the caliphs, often at the expense of religious concerns - a development that disturbed many devout Muslims. How did Islam change in the Middle East? In the eighth century, all of northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), India, and Indonesia became . On the death of Mahmud, his sons continued his efforts with a series of reforms called the tanzimat. It is a simple statement, yet also profound, for in it a Muslim expresses his complete acceptance of, and total commitment to, the message of Islam. Nevertheless, the decline continued. In addition to education, contact with the West led to improvements in medical care and the introduction of Western techniques in agriculture, commerce, and industry. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. As an important trading post with vibrant economic activity, the city of Mecca, in the Arabian Peninsula, was a valuable setting for Islam, providing important context for Islam's relationship to trade. The Arabs considered this claim to be without substance. So, in proportion did sporadic strife between Arabs and Jews. The struggle with the Sassanid realm had opened in 687 at al-Qadisiyah, near Ctesiphon in Iraq, where Muslim cavalry had successfully coped with elephants used by the Persians as a kind of primitive tank. 8. Their adoption in Europe began in the tenth century after an Arabic mathematical treatise was translated by a scholar in Spain and spread throughout the West. It was the beginning of the period the Christians called the Reconquest, and it underlined a serious problem that marred this refined, graceful, and charming era: the inability of the numerous rulers of Islamic Spain to maintain their unity. In fact, by emigration to North Africa and elsewhere, many Muslims carried remnants of the Spanish era with them and were thus able to make important contributions to the material and cultural life of their adopted lands. The Arab scholars perceived that a sign representing "nothing" or "nought" was required because the place of a sign gave as much information as its unitary value did. A muezzin at the House of Wisdom, unlike their modern counterparts, did not `` specialize. the is! On the empire continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention to. Into Spain, defeated the Visigoths, and their achievements were impressive from 661 to 750that and. 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