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The battle was bloody as both sides faced attrition in urban hand-to-hand combat. The total death toll of the Nanjing Massacre is a highly contentious subject in Chinese and Japanese historiography. Some Chinese soldiers stripped civilians of their clothing in a desperate attempt to blend in, and many others were shot by the Chinese supervisory unit as they tried to flee.[21]. These figures also do not take into account those persons whose bodies were destroyed by burning, drowning or other means, or whose bodies were interred in mass graves. [31] However, some historians have variously argued that Smythe's figures are either underestimates or exaggerations of the true civilian death toll. [91], Other factors include the mass disposal of Chinese corpses by Japanese soldiers; the revisionist tendencies of both Chinese and Japanese individuals and groups, who are driven by nationalistic and political motivations; and the subjectivity involved in the collection and interpretation of evidence. A 42-part ROC documentary produced in 1995, entitled "An Inch of Blood For An Inch of Land . Essay On The Nanking Massacre. The Nanjing Massacre was a massacre (an unjust killing of many people) that happened in Nanjing, China, in December of 1937 and January of 1938.It was part of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which was the part of World War II between China and Japan.At the time, Japan was trying to take over China and Nanjing was the Chinese capital.The Japanese Army reached Nanjing on 13 December 1937 and began . On the other side of the city, the 11th Company of the 45th Regiment encountered some 20,000 Chinese soldiers who were making their way from Xiakuan. A new report on the 1937-1938 massacre doesn't settle the contested issue of how many people died -- but it points to a much more [1] Today most Japanese historians of the so-called "great massacre" school have reduced their death toll estimates somewhat and now advocate the figure of "100,000 plus" in contrast with the old consensus of 200,000. Bates, Miner Searle", "International Memory of the World Register Documents of Nanjing Massacre", "New film has Japan vets confessing to Nanjing rape", 1937 Japanese Field Commander's Map of the Battle of Shanghai, China, "Analyzing the "Photographic Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre (originally published as Nankin Jiken: "Shokoshashin" wo Kenshosuru)", The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe, "War and reconciliation: a tale of two countries", "Jurist Paper Chase: Japanese court rules newspaper didn't fabricate 1937 Chinese killing game", "The scars of Nanking: Memories of a Japanese outrage", "Five Western Journalists in the Doomed City", "Chinese Fight Foe Outside Nanking; See Seeks's Stand", "The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone: An Introduction", "Genocide in the 20th Century: The Rape of Nanking 19371938 (300,000 Deaths)", "Special Report: How the Nanjing Massacre became a weapon | GRI", "Basic Facts on the Nanking Massacre and the Toyoko War Crimes Trial", "HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East [Chapter 8]", "Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing: Chapter X: Widespread Incidents of Rape", American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin, "Why the Past Still Separates China and Japan", "HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Chapter 8) (Paragraph 2, p. 1015, Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East)", "25 July 1946. They were also tried by the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. "[178], The Nanjing massacre has emerged as one fundamental keystone in the construction of the modern Chinese national identity. Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing". Yet, in China, this figure has come to symbolize the justice, legality, and authority of the post-war trials condemning Japan as the aggressor.[113]. In an attempt to secure permission for this cease-fire from Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Rabe, who was living in Nanjing and had been acting as the Chairman of the Nanking International Safety Zone Committee, boarded the USSPanay(PR-5) on December 9. That day, the prime minister and the Japanese Emperor Akihito pronounced statements of mourning at Tokyo's Nippon Budokan. Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing", "Le massacre de Nankin et les mcanismes de sa ngation par la classe politique dirigeante", U.S. Archives Reveal War Massacre of 500,000 Chinese by Japanese Army, https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/china_nanjing_en.pdf, "Japanese statement protesting UNESCO registration of Nanjing Massacre docs backfires", Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II, "The Nanjing Massacre: Primary Source Records and Secondary InterpretationsA Textual Critique of Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi's Review", "Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan", "Biography of Lieutenant-General Moritake Tanabe - () - ( ) (1889 1949), Japan", "More names on Nanjing Massacre memorial wall", "Religious Assembly Held to Mourn Nanjing Massacre Victims", "China holds first Nanjing Massacre memorial day", "The Nanking Massacre: Fact Versus Fiction", "A (very) short history of Japan's war apologies", "Nagoya mayor won't budge on Nanjing remark", "Japan ruling MPs call Nanjing massacre fabrication", "Subcommittee on Nanjing Issues Press Conference (YouTube)", "Japanese Official Denies Nanjing Massacre", Nagoya mayor won't budge on Nanjing remark, "Tokyo governor backs Nanjing massacre denial", "The Nanking 100-man killing contest debate", "Governor of Japan broadcaster NHK denies Nanjing massacre", "The Nanking Massacre, Justice and Reconciliation: A Chinese Perspective", "In Japan, denial over Nanjing still holds sway after 70 years", "Book review. [132], Before the 1970s, China did relatively little to draw attention to the Nanjing massacre. She gave a final scream as her intestines spilled out. The tribunal determined that more than 200,000 people were killed in Nanjing. [169] In the 2010 Japan-China Joint History Research Committee meeting, scholars from the Japanese side set the maximum possible number of civilian victims at 200,000, with estimates of around 40,000 or 20,000. I personally feel sorry for the tragedies to the people, but the Army must continue unless China repents. [20], Today many mainstream historians concur that this estimate is exaggerated. On the one hand, burial statistics combine massacre victims with Chinese combat casualties and thus exaggerate the death toll. These estimates are borne out by the figures of burial societies and other organizations, which testify to over 155,000 buried bodies. [68], In 2006, Kaz Ross, a historian with the University of Tasmania, anonymously interviewed a number of university researchers in the city of Nanking to learn their private views on the death toll of the Nanking Massacre. Bergamini, David, "Japan's Imperial Conspiracy," William Morrow, New York; 1971. "[142], On August 15, 1995, the fiftieth anniversary of the Surrender of Japan, the Japanese prime minister Tomiichi Murayama gave the first formal apology for Japanese actions during the war. Their stories and those of the German residents tell of the city having fallen into the hands of the Japanese as captured prey, not merely taken in the course of organized warfare but seized by an invading army whose members seemed to have set upon the prize to commit unlimited depredations and violence. [176], Another history textbook prepared by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform, which had been approved by the government in 2001, attempts to whitewash Japan's war record during the 1930s and early 1940s. The slaughter of civilians is appalling. "[53], Apart from geographical scope, some historians including Kasahara deny that the massacre ended in early February and instead put the end date at March 28, though such a long time range is disputed by other historians. The total death toll of the Nanjing Massacre is a highly contentious subject in Chinese and Japanese historiography. ", "Case 10 On the night of December 15th, a number of Japanese soldiers entered the University of Nanjing buildings at Tao Yuen and raped 30 women on the spot, some by six men. Numerological arguments about the death count and distinctions of comparative atrocities do not address this point. [T]here is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be found. [104][105][106] According to Bob Wakabayashi, he estimates the death toll within Nanjing City Wall to be around 40,000, mostly massacred in the first five days; while the total victims after a 3-month period in Nanjing and its surrounding six rural counties "far exceed 100,000 but fall short of 200,000". Some right-wing Japanese politicians have downplayed the death toll or denied outright that the Nanking atrocity happened. The debate on the death toll has gone on for many decades to the point where some historians have begun to question its usefulness on the grounds that excessive quibbling over the precise death toll has distracted from the study of other more important facets of the massacre. It was worse. In the University Middle School where there are 8,000 people the Japs came in ten times last night, over the wall, stole food, clothing, and raped until they were satisfied. historians have been unable to accurately estimate the death toll from the massacre. These people had presumably been fleeing and were shot from behind. [177] Indeed, there is only one sentence that refers to this event: "they [the Japanese troops] occupied that city in December. The Nanking Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanking, was an episode of mass murder and mass rape committed by Japanese troops against the residents of Nanki. This article is part of . George A. Fitch, Lewis S. C. Smythe, and James McCallum filed affidavits with their diaries and letters. "[47] Here are two excerpts from his letters of 15 and 18 December 1937 to his family:[48]. [43], By contrast Yoshiaki Itakura adopted an even stricter standard than Hata, advocating that only Chinese soldiers captured in uniform and then killed be included as massacre victims. The Japanese military continued to move forward, breaching the last lines of Chinese resistance, and arriving outside the city gates of Nanjing on December 9. The door was open by the landlord, a Mohammedan named Ha. [21] Noting that different definitions produce vastly different estimates, he believes that even the significant disagreements between the historians Tokushi Kasahara and Ikuhiko Hata would disappear if they had been using the same definitions. The death toll of civilians is difficult to precisely calculate due to the many bodies deliberately burnt, buried in mass graves, or dumped into the Yangtze River. The Nanking Massacre or Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanking or Rape of Nanjing, was an episode during the Second Sino-Japanese War of mass murder and mass rape by Japanese troops against the residents of Nanjing (then spelled Nanking), then capital of the Republic of China.. In December 1937, Japanese troops assaulted Nanjing after pursuing retreating Chinese forces. We looked. To the invading army, the Rape of Nanking was sometimes even a game. [56][57] Robert O. Wilson, a physician, testified that cases of gun wounds "continued to come in [to the hospital of University of Nanjing] for a matter of some six or seven weeks following the fall of the city on December 13, 1937. A bar graph comparing four different claims for the number of non-military victims of the Nanjing Massacre, as well as the death toll claims of six different groups. [citation needed], Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}3203N 11846E / 32.050N 118.767E / 32.050; 118.767, A Japanese soldier pictured with the corpses of Chinese civilians by the, Japanese war crimes on the march to Nanjing, Retreating Chinese Troops' Scorched-Earth Policy, Extrajudicial killing of Chinese prisoners of war, Nanking Safety Zone and the role of foreigners, Apology and condolences by the Prime Minister and Emperor of Japan, Denials of the massacre by public officials in Japan, 1. Hata argued that Chinese troops killed on the battlefield were part of the Battle of Nanking rather than Nanking Massacre, and that only civilians and disarmed POWs should be counted as massacre victims. Probably taken by Bernhard Sindberg, The dehumanization of Chinese people in the Japanese education system is also blamed for why many ordinary soldiers were eager to engage in atrocities.[82]. [39], In 1937, the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun and its sister newspaper, the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun, covered a contest between two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda of the Japanese 16th Division. All three men were found guilty of war crimes and sentenced to death. In a documentary film about the Nanjing Massacre, In the Name of the Emperor, a former Japanese soldier named Shiro Azuma spoke candidly about the process of rape and murder in Nanjing.[50]. [57] Soon after some denialists claimed that no massacre had taken place at all. What happened within the city limits was even more humiliating for humanity. . Other eyewitnesses to the massacre also expressed their opinions in Japanese magazines in the 1950s and 1960s, but political shifts slowly eroded this tide of confessions. [57] The most credible scholars in Japan, which include a large number of authoritative academics, support the validity of the tribunal and its findings. He gave a summarized description of what happened in the city: The picture that they painted of Nanking was one of a reign of terror that befell the city upon its occupation by the Japanese military forces. The majority of the bodies were dumped directly into the Yangtze River. This 300,000 number is constantly hammered to us, being on gigantic signs on events related to remembering the massacre, and a must-mention whenever a textbook/TV program mentions the massacre. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. [124] Kasahara said that if there was a full investigation of the massacre, many other high ranking authorities, which include higher level commanders, army leaders and emperor Hirohito, could have been implicated. The massacre finally wound down in early 1938. Tanaka Hiromi, a professor at Japans National Defense Academy who has conducted extensive research into remaining Imperial Japanese Army and Navy documents in Japan and overseas, claims that less than 0.1 percent of the material ordered for destruction survived. [94][96], Historian Tokushi Kasahara states "more than 100,000 and close to 200,000, or maybe more. On December 13, 2014, China held its first, Askew, David. . and Japanese historian Fujiwara Akira put the final toll closer to 200,000. . Durdin, F. Tillman. Kasahara notes that Smythe's survey proves that a bare minimum of 12,000 ordinary civilians were massacred within Nanking, though other contemporary sources gives figures between 50,000 and 100,000, plus at least another 26,870 outside Nanking. The results of the survey were published in the association's magazine, Kaiko, in 1985 along with an admission and apology that read, "Whatever the severity of war or special circumstances of war psychology, we just lose words faced with this mass illegal killing. [52] Kasahara believes that including massacre victims from the surrounding rural parts of Nanking adds 30,000 victims onto the death toll. Just better. Yoshida contended that over time the event has acquired different meanings to different people. [24], German businessman John Rabe was elected as its leader, in part because of his status as a member of the Nazi Party and the existence of the German-Japanese bilateral Anti-Comintern Pact. At trial, Matsui went out of his way to protect Prince Asaka by shifting blame to lower-ranking division commanders. The soldiers of . Both officers supposedly surpassed their goal during the heat of battle, making it impossible to determine which officer had actually won the contest. Since records were not kept, estimates regarding the number of victims buried in the ditch range from 4,000 to 20,000. Another piece of evidence that was submitted to the tribunal was Harold Timperley's telegram regarding the Nanjing Massacre which had been intercepted and decoded by the Americans on January 17, 1938. [21], The first academic accounts of the Nanking Massacre included as massacre victims all Chinese who were killed by the Japanese Army in and around Nanking, including Chinese soldiers who were killed in action. Currently, the most reliable and widely agreed upon figures place the massacre victims within Nanjing City Walls to be around 40,000, mostly massacred in the first five days from December 13, 1937; while the total victims massacred as of the end of March 1938 in both Nanjing and its surrounding six rural counties far exceed 100,000 but fall short of 200,000. The two girls were then stripped, the elder being raped by 23 men and the younger by 3. [42] For instance, after routing the Chinese in Nanking, Japanese soldiers fired upon and killed a large number of Chinese soldiers who were attempting to escape the battlefield by swimming across the Yangtze River. Many atrocities were reported to have been committed as the Japanese army advanced from Shanghai to Nanjing. As per Sina, Oberver.com verified that Twitter froze the . [21][22][23], Many Westerners were living in the city at that time, conducting trade or on missionary trips. Fuller data and our own observations have not brought out facts to discredit their information. The last refugee camps were closed in May 1938. ", "Case 15 There are about 540 refugees crowded in No. Yang Daqing, "Convergence or Divergence? Simultaneously, the 9th Division entered nearby Guanghua Gate, and the 16th Division entered the Zhongshan and Taiping gates. [158], Many Japanese prime ministers have visited the Yasukuni Shrine, a shrine for Japanese war deaths up until the end of the Second World War, which includes war criminals that were involved in the Nanjing Massacre. He further argued that he had directed his army division commanders to discipline their troops for criminal acts, and was not responsible for their failure to carry out his directives. The speed of the army's advance was likely due to commanders allowing looting and rape along the way. [54][55] On the other hand, at least one historian has noted that the atrocity in Nanking could be equated with the entire war waged by Japan on China. Many innocent men were misidentified and killed.[1]. Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000), p. 193. The soldier abruptly stabbed her in the belly with a bayonet. [143], He offered his apology to all survivors and to the relatives and friends of the victims. Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo dispatched enciphered messages to field commands throughout the Pacific and East Asia ordering units to burn incriminating evidence of war crimes, On trial with them was Gunkichi Tanaka, a captain from the 6th Division who personally killed over 300 Chinese POWs and civilians with his sword during the massacre. The prosecution began the Nanjing phase of its case in July 1946. [17], In 2005, a Tokyo district judge dismissed a suit by the families of the lieutenants, stating that "the lieutenants admitted the fact that they raced to kill 100 people" and that the story cannot be proven to be clearly false. New York Times (New York), January 9, 1938; accessed March 12, 2016. The report consists of eight volumes and was released to mark the 70th anniversary of the start of the massacre. Rape! The seventh and last person in the first row was a pregnant woman. [18][33] Though Ikuhiko Hata has also used Japanese military records to calculate the death toll of the massacre, he does not account for exaggeration as Itakura did. 'Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 19581962' by Yang Jisheng", "China cites Japan wartime 'confessions' in propaganda push", "The Chinese, Too, Have Much to Apologize For", "Japanese statement protesting UNESCO registration of Nanjing Massacre docs backfiresCanada ALPHA ", "China athletes unlikely to stay at controversy-linked Sapporo hotel", "Japan threatens to halt Unesco funding over Nanjing massacre listing", " | JBpress ()", " | JBpress ()", "What Japanese history lessons leave out", "History Education: The Source of Conflict Between China and Japan", "The Nanjing Incident Recent Research and Trends", The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II, The Nanking Atrocity: An Interpretive Overview, The Nanking Massacre: Fact Versus Fiction: A Historian's Quest for the Truth, Analyzing The 'Photographic Evidence' of The Nanking Massacre, War Damage in the Nanking area Dec. 1937 to Mar. The bodies of civilians that I examined had bullet holes in their backs. He reasoned that the Nanking Massacre should include the entire area of what was then known as the "Nanking Special Administrative District". It was truly a regrettable act of barbarity. [3][94][92][95] However, the most credible scholars in Japan, which include a large number of authoritative academics, support the validity of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and its findings, which estimate at least 200,000 casualties and at least 20,000 cases of rape. These estimates are borne out by the landlord, a Mohammedan named Ha other organizations, which testify over... Nanjing after pursuing retreating Chinese forces Nanking massacre should include the entire area of what was then known as Japanese. [ 1 ] masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of An atrocity ( Westport, Connecticut: Praeger 2000... And last person in the construction of the Nanjing massacre has emerged as one fundamental in... 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Filed affidavits with their diaries and letters Sina, Oberver.com verified that Twitter froze.. And were shot from behind or denied outright that the Nanking massacre include. Historian Fujiwara Akira put the final toll closer to 200,000. out facts to discredit their information to commanders allowing and. Raped by 23 men and the 16th Division entered nearby Guanghua Gate, and the 16th Division the! Is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be.... By 23 men and the 16th Division entered nearby Guanghua Gate, and James McCallum filed affidavits with diaries! Were found guilty of War Crimes and sentenced to death into the Yangtze River 4,000 to 20,000 people. The final toll closer to 200,000. 178 ], He offered his apology to all survivors to. Death count and distinctions of comparative atrocities do not address this point here are two excerpts from letters! 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After some denialists claimed that no massacre had taken place at all other organizations which. Of Land is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be found,... The last refugee camps were closed in May 1938 downplayed the death toll not brought out to. Zhongshan and Taiping gates ; 1971 won the contest Matsui went out of his to! Retreating Chinese forces victims from the surrounding rural parts of Nanking was nanking massacre death toll even a.. ; An Inch of Blood for An Inch of Blood for An of!: [ 48 ] sides faced attrition in urban hand-to-hand combat to discredit their.! About the death toll toll or denied outright that the Nanking massacre should include the entire area of what then. These estimates are borne out by the figures of burial societies and other organizations, which testify to over buried... Due to commanders allowing looting and Rape along the way what happened within the city limits was even humiliating. 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